| 1677 |
Antony Leeuwenhoek improves the microscope; getting the first good look at bacteria |
| 1735 |
Diphtheria and Scarlet Fever epidemic begins
in New England |
| 1861 |
Louis Pasteur disproves spontaneous generation
leading to the germ theory of infection |
| 1861 |
Semmelweis publishes his principal work The
Cause, Concept and Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever; and was ignored |
| 1876 |
First proof of germ theory of disease with B.
anthrocis discovery |
| 1882 |
Robert Koch outlines Koch's postulates |
| 1884 |
Christian Gram develops Gram Stain |
| 1928 |
Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin |
| 1945 |
Chain, Fleming and Florey were given the Nobel
Prize for their work on penicillin |
| 1995 |
First microbial genomic sequence published
(H. influenzae) by TIGR |
Flora out of control
Corynebacterium Diphtheriae is the causal agent of the disease diphtheria. Diphtheria was first clinically described by Hippocrates in the 4th century B.C., and it is still reeking havoc in third world countries today. In 1735 the disease hit epidemic proportions in New England. In one town (Kingston, NH) 26 children died from the disease during the month of August alone. As C. diphtheria ravaged the countryside of New England, a symptomatically similar disease was spreading in Boston, MA. Streptococcus pyogenes (the causal agent of Scarlet fever) brought illness, yet a lower fatality rate to the city. The physicians and scientists of the day, unable to distinguish the two epidemics, considered them both "throat distemper". Boston physicians proudly attributed the city's lower fatality rate to their superior medical treatment. Boston's clergyman saw a higher cause. At the time, Massachusetts had laws requiring adequate pay for ministers, leading to the belief that God was punishing the heathen in New Hampshire.
Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis have been making physicians look bad for centuries. Though a part of the normal flora of the throat and skin (respectively), the bacteria can turn deadly in people with compromised immune systems. During the 1950's and 1960's, staphylococcal infection was synonymous with nosocomial infection. Currently, the estimated rate of nosocomial infections is 5%-6%. It estimated to contribute to 88,000 deaths per year. All this, after the discovery of antibiotics and aseptic surgical procedures.
In 1847, Dr. Ignaz Semmelweis was working in the maternity wards of a Vienna hospital. During this time "childbed fever", later found to be caused by S. pyogenes, was a misunderstood and often fatal consequence of child birth. Semmelweis noticed that in Ward 1, where the male doctors and medical students were in charge, there was a 29% mortality rate among the woman. Yet in Ward 2, where midwives delivered the babies, the mortality rate was a comparatively low 3%. In this hospital the medical students would often go straight from the autopsy of a diseased corpse to delivery of a baby, without washing their hands. Midwives, of course, were not allowed in medical school, or the autopsy room. The doctor devised a plan. He had the medical students, wash their hands in a chlorinated solution before entering the maternity ward. The plan worked in so far as mortality rates dropped down to 1%. What didn't work was convincing the medical community that diseases can be spread by the touch of a doctor, or controlled by hand washing.
In 1881, a lesson not learned repeated itself. President Garfield first became that victim of an assassination attempt, then was killed by the doctors trying to help him. One of the bullets had lodged itself in the presidents body. Over the course of the next several days, one doctor after another dug his fingers into the bullet hole, determined to find and remove the bullet. Collectively their managed to turn a 3 inch wound into a 20 inch gash teeming with infection. Not surprisingly, Garfield died shortly thereafter. In an ironic twist, the autopsy proved that the bullet was actually lodged in a protective cyst, far from where the doctors were looking. The assassin was hanged, despite his defense that it was the doctors, not he who killed the president. The doctors however did not agree with the assassin's assessment. They billed the Senate for $80,000.
Corynebacterium Diphtheriae is the causal agent of the disease diphtheria. Diphtheria was first clinically described by Hippocrates in the 4th century B.C., and it is still reeking havoc in third world countries today. In 1735 the disease hit epidemic proportions in New England. In one town (Kingston, NH) 26 children died from the disease during the month of August alone. As C. diphtheria ravaged the countryside of New England, a symptomatically similar disease was spreading in Boston, MA. Streptococcus pyogenes (the causal agent of Scarlet fever) brought illness, yet a lower fatality rate to the city. The physicians and scientists of the day, unable to distinguish the two epidemics, considered them both "throat distemper". Boston physicians proudly attributed the city's lower fatality rate to their superior medical treatment. Boston's clergyman saw a higher cause. At the time, Massachusetts had laws requiring adequate pay for ministers, leading to the belief that God was punishing the heathen in New Hampshire.
Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis have been making physicians look bad for centuries. Though a part of the normal flora of the throat and skin (respectively), the bacteria can turn deadly in people with compromised immune systems. During the 1950's and 1960's, staphylococcal infection was synonymous with nosocomial infection. Currently, the estimated rate of nosocomial infections is 5%-6%. It estimated to contribute to 88,000 deaths per year. All this, after the discovery of antibiotics and aseptic surgical procedures.
That Wonderful Drug
|
|
Penicillin, coined the "Wonder Drug" for it's amazing ability
to wipe out bacterial infections, was the discovery that almost wasn't.
Dr. Alexander Fleming had been trying to identify this magic bullet
using scientific procedure for years, but cold weather and a messy lab were
the ultimate decisive factors. In 1928, Fleming decided to take a month
long vacation, leaving several petri dishes filled with bacterial cultures
in his laboratory's sink. While away, mother nature facilitated the
growth of the penicillin mold in the dishes by providing a cold snap followed
by a warming trend. When Fleming returned he went to dispose of the
contaminated cultures and noticed a peculiar inhibition zone surrounding the
fungus. Unfortunately, he was unable to produce a concentrated extract
of penicillin. Lacking proof of its potential, his publishing on the
subject was virtually ignored for almost 10 years. It was 1940 before
Howard Florey and Ernest Chain picked up the scent of success, and created
a medicinally useful extract of penicillin. Just in time to save the
lives of the soldiers injured in W.W.II.
A Little Soap
Goes a Long Way
In 1847, Dr. Ignaz Semmelweis was working in the maternity wards of a Vienna hospital. During this time "childbed fever", later found to be caused by S. pyogenes, was a misunderstood and often fatal consequence of child birth. Semmelweis noticed that in Ward 1, where the male doctors and medical students were in charge, there was a 29% mortality rate among the woman. Yet in Ward 2, where midwives delivered the babies, the mortality rate was a comparatively low 3%. In this hospital the medical students would often go straight from the autopsy of a diseased corpse to delivery of a baby, without washing their hands. Midwives, of course, were not allowed in medical school, or the autopsy room. The doctor devised a plan. He had the medical students, wash their hands in a chlorinated solution before entering the maternity ward. The plan worked in so far as mortality rates dropped down to 1%. What didn't work was convincing the medical community that diseases can be spread by the touch of a doctor, or controlled by hand washing.
In 1881, a lesson not learned repeated itself. President Garfield first became that victim of an assassination attempt, then was killed by the doctors trying to help him. One of the bullets had lodged itself in the presidents body. Over the course of the next several days, one doctor after another dug his fingers into the bullet hole, determined to find and remove the bullet. Collectively their managed to turn a 3 inch wound into a 20 inch gash teeming with infection. Not surprisingly, Garfield died shortly thereafter. In an ironic twist, the autopsy proved that the bullet was actually lodged in a protective cyst, far from where the doctors were looking. The assassin was hanged, despite his defense that it was the doctors, not he who killed the president. The doctors however did not agree with the assassin's assessment. They billed the Senate for $80,000.